In addressing TNE governance challenges, students are key

Transnational education (TNE) has evolved from being a niche element of higher education to becoming a mainstream form of internationalisation. Initially characterised by offshore campuses and franchise arrangements, TNE has expanded into a wide variety of models, including joint programmes, distance and online learning, dual or joint branch campuses, franchise programmes and international joint universities.

This growth has been driven by several factors: rising global demand for higher education; limited domestic capacities and resources; and increasing desire for internationally recognised qualifications without having to move abroad to study.

TNE plays a crucial role in the internationalisation of institutions, enhancing their global reputation and engagement strategies. TNE enables them to reach a broader and more diverse student audience, facilitates global knowledge exchange and generates vital revenue streams. Furthermore, institutional partnerships can pave the way for broader forms of academic and research collaboration.

For students, TNE provides valuable opportunities to access education from prestigious international institutions and obtain internationally recognised qualifications. In addition, TNE often features flexible learning options and exposes students to diverse teaching practices, providing competitive labour market advantages, both locally and internationally.

Within the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), the United Kingdom is the most significant sending country, followed by France, Spain and Germany. Outside the EHEA, Australia stands out as the leading sender of TNE. For European-sending countries, the primary receiving regions are the Gulf and the Asia-Pacific.

While acknowledging the benefits, it is important to note that there are risks and ‘grey areas’ associated with TNE.

TNE is prone to be misused by fraudulent businesses, including so-called ‘diploma mills’; institutions might take advantage of the lack of transparency and regulatory loopholes to operate fraudulently in the global higher education sector. Therefore, TNE risks feeding the broader trend of a ‘commercialisation’ of higher education, turning education as a ‘public good’ into a mere transaction of educational goods and services.

It is no coincidence that countries investing in this sector derive significant revenues from commercialisation activities. For example, the total 2020 revenue from education-related exports and TNE education in the UK was £25.6 billion (US$34.5 billion).

Expansion of TNE

There has been a vast expansion of branch campuses abroad, marking only the beginning of what is to come. According to IAU’s World Higher Education Database, the number of international branch campuses in foreign territory was less than 50 in the year 2000. Today, the number amounts to over 300.

This expansion has had a substantial impact on access to education. Inviting foreign universities to establish campuses on domestic territory constitutes a strategy to enhance the attractiveness of the local higher education system by retaining domestic students who might otherwise study abroad, while attracting international students.

As TNE has expanded and evolved, the importance of robust quality assurance mechanisms has become evident as they play a vital role in protecting the interests of students and the reputation of legitimate providers while also supporting the recognition of qualifications.

Many sending and receiving countries have strengthened their regulatory frameworks; at international level, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) have promoted cross-border cooperation on quality assurance.

As a result of the QACHE project (2013-16), led by ENQA, a toolkit for agencies for quality assurance of TNE and recommendations for policy-makers have been developed.

Additionally, UNESCO and the OECD developed the Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-border Higher Education in 2005.

In Europe, the joint Council of Europe-UNESCO Lisbon Recognition Convention Committee (LRCC) developed the Code of Good Practice in the Provision of Transnational Education, adopted in 2001 and revised in 2007. In October 2025, the LRCC expects to adopt a new Code of Good Practice.

TNE is a priority within the ongoing work under the UNESCO Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education. At the forthcoming Second Intergovernmental Conference of the States Parties in June 2025, the Operational Guidelines, which will include provisions and guidance on TNE, are expected to be adopted.

Another key development in the TNE evolution has been the recognition of TNE qualifications. Initially fragmented and inconsistent practices have been overhauled by structured and collaborative approaches. As more countries have been adopting frameworks for evaluating foreign and cross-border qualifications, and as quality assurance processes have become more rigorous and transparent, the recognition of TNE has improved.

Possibilities and challenges for TNE governance

Despite advancements in TNE recognition, challenges remain, particularly regarding the alignment of regulatory requirements, harmonising standards across diverse education systems and ensuring that qualifications delivered transnationally are treated with the same legitimacy as those earned through traditional, domestic routes.

Growing student demand, rising institutional and national interest and rapid technological developments have led to the creation of a multitude of TNE models. This rapid development on the ground complicates the associated terminology used in policy and research, leading to confusion, fragmented monitoring practices and limited or incomparable data.

As TNE partnerships increasingly take multidimensional and equitable forms, the traditional binary classifications of ‘home/host’ or ‘importing/exporting’ institutions and countries are becoming obsolete. Partnerships now often involve more than two institutions and span various domains, including teaching, delivery, research and student mobility.

The challenges facing TNE can differ depending on whether it occurs within the EHEA or outside it. Within the EHEA, a strong framework is provided by the Lisbon Recognition Convention, the Bologna Process and its associated tools. At the global level, the UNESCO-OECD Guidelines serve as a useful reference. However, despite their broad acceptance, a major challenge lies in raising awareness and ensuring consistent implementation.

Furthermore, the development of regulation is lagging behind the fast-paced changes that concern TNE. This leads to many challenges, including lack of clear policies regarding TNE provision, quality assurance and recognition of qualifications.

Transparency is a key issue, with a clear lack of publicly accessible information about TNE programmes and resulting qualifications, internal and external quality assurance arrangements and roles and responsibilities among the cooperating partners and stakeholders. These and other points were further elaborated in a 2023 article by ENQA.

Another important consideration is the growing prevalence of online and distance education, which blurs the traditional boundaries between domestic and transnational provision. This presents a key concern within TNE, as it may not be covered by the existing quality assurance procedures designed for in-person provision in the receiving country. Consequently, it could represent a significant risk to safeguarding student interests.

Students at the forefront

In addressing these multifaceted governance challenges, one central point must remain at the forefront: the interests of students should be at the heart of regulatory frameworks, quality assurance procedures and institutional initiatives.

In the 2024 Tirana Communiqué, ministers responsible for higher education within the EHEA committed to fostering “more robust and transparent quality assurance of transnational education delivered worldwide, in line with the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the EHEA (ESG), to protect the interests of students”.

In 2022, the Lisbon Recognition Convention Committee adopted its second monitoring report, which included a TNE section. Based on an analysis of responses from 53 contracting parties to the Lisbon Recognition Convention, the report emphasised that aspects related to ‘quality’ and ‘transparency of information’ are central to TNE.

Importantly, higher education institutions and national authorities should provide clear information on quality assurance aspects and other elements of a TNE qualification that may differ from a national qualification.

The final LRCC recommendations – in line with the Global Convention and the practices of the ENIC-NARIC centres – call on national authorities to take measures to eliminate all forms of malpractice in TNE, especially inhibiting the lucrative business of ‘diploma mills’.

At institutional level, the success of TNE initiatives depends on strategic support and active engagement from senior leadership. This ensures that appropriate resources are allocated throughout the lifecycle of TNE projects. At the same time, institutions should strengthen their monitoring mechanisms and enhance TNE accountability.

Transparency, accountability and student-centred policies are key to protecting learners and sustaining the credibility of TNE. These principles are guiding the next steps in the development of policy instruments and international cooperation efforts.

What lies ahead for TNE?

Under the UNESCO Global Recognition Convention, a research paper on Quality Assurance focusing on TNE is to be presented and discussed at the Second Intergovernmental Conference of the States Parties in June 2024. This paper will serve as the foundation for a more detailed and practical thematic guideline on TNE, outlining concrete steps for implementation. The adoption of this document is foreseen for the 2027 Intergovernmental Conference.

Meanwhile, the Council of Europe and UNESCO are working on the new Code of Good Practice in the Provision of Transnational Education in the framework of the LRCC. The code will aim to enhance the quality and integrity of TNE by providing structured guidance to both sending and receiving countries.

The primary objectives include ensuring that TNE adheres to consistent quality and high TNE standards, facilitating fair recognition of qualifications and fostering mutual trust between institutions. The code will also aim to safeguard the interests of students, employers and other stakeholders while reinforcing international cooperation in higher education.

Another initiative enhancing quality assurance of TNE is a forthcoming ENQA-led project, Robust Quality Assurance of Transnational Education (ROQA-TNE). This project will map current approaches and challenges to TNE quality assurance, facilitate peer learning and share good practice, support quality assurance agencies through a self-assessment tool, extend and update the guidance previously prepared under the QACHE project and develop policy principles for national authorities.

Undeniably, TNE has become an integral part and key feature of global higher education, offering significant benefits to institutions and students. However, it also presents complex evolving challenges for governance, quality assurance and recognition of qualifications.

Future progress will depend on sustained international collaboration, the development of robust and adaptable regulatory frameworks and an unwavering commitment to student interests. Ultimately, promoting trust and transparency will be essential to unlocking the full potential of TNE in an increasingly interconnected academic landscape.

Elena Cirlan is senior policy and project coordinator at ENQA, responsible for external representation, project coordination, and managing the association’s statutory activities. Luca Lantero is associate professor at the European Law and Governance School (ELGS) and director of the Institute for Higher Education Law and Governance (IHELG) housed by the European Public Law Organization (EPLO). He is the general director of CIMEA, the Italian Information Centre on Academic Mobility and Equivalence. Stig Arne Skjerven is the chair of the Bureau of the Intergovernmental Conference of States Parties of the Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications Concerning Higher Education and senior advisor in the Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills (HK-dir). Vangelis Tsiligkiris is professor of international education at Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, UK. Francesca Villa is a senior credential evaluator at CIMEA, the Italian Information Centre on Academic Mobility and Equivalence, specialising in transnational education and the French and Francophone educational systems. Catherine Dolgova Dreyer is head of the Higher and Further Education Unit in the Education Division of the Council of Europe. She is also co-secretary of the UNESCO/COE Lisbon Recognition Convention and of the ENIC network. Catherine is also secretary of the Council of Europe Steering Committee for Education, which brings together representatives of education authorities from the 46 Council of Europe member states and stakeholder organisations. Catherine represents the Council of Europe in the Bologna Board and the Bologna Follow-up Group.

This article is a commentary. Commentary articles are the opinion of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of University World News.